## Lecture 14: Kernels continued

### Well-defined kernels

Here are the most common kernels:
• Linear: $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z})=\mathbf{x}^\top\mathbf{z}$
• RBF: $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})=e^{- \frac{(\mathbf{x}-\mathbf{z})^2}{\sigma^2}}$
• Polynomial: $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z})=(1+\mathbf{x}^\top\mathbf{z})^d$
Kernels built by recursively combining one or more of the following rules are called well-defined kernels:
1. $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z})=\mathbf{x}^\top\mathbf{z}\quad\quad\quad(1)$
2. $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z})=c\mathsf{k_1}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})\quad\quad(2)$
3. $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z})=\mathsf{k_1}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})+\mathsf{k_2}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})$
4. $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z})=g(\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z}))$
5. $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z})=\mathsf{k_1}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})\mathsf{k_2}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})$
6. $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z})=f(\mathbf{x})\mathsf{k_1}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})f(\mathbf{z})\quad(3)$
7. $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z})=e^{\mathsf{k_1}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})}\quad\quad(4)$
8. $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z})=\mathbf{x}^\top \mathbf{A} \mathbf{z}$
where $k_1,k_2$ are well-defined kernels, $c\geq 0$, $g$ is a polynomial function with positive coefficients, $f$ is any function and $\mathbf{A}\succeq 0$ is positive semi-definite. Kernel being well-defined is equivalent to the corresponding kernel matrix, $K$, being positive semidefinite (not proved here), which is equivalent to any of the following statement:
1. All eigenvalues of $K$ are non-negative.
2. $\exists \text{ real matrix } P \text{ s.t. } K=P^\top P.$
3. $\forall \text{ real vector } \mathbf{x}, \mathbf{x}^\top K \mathbf{x} \ge 0.$
It is trivial to prove that linear kernel and polynomial kernel with integer $d$ are both well-defined kernel.
The RBF kernel $k_{RBF}=e^{\frac{-(\mathbf{x}-\mathbf{z})^2}{\sigma^2}}$ is a well-defined kernel matrix.
\begin{aligned} \mathsf{k}_1(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})&=\mathbf{x}^\top \mathbf{z} \qquad \textrm{well defined by rule (1)}\\ \mathsf{k}_2(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})&=\frac{2}{\sigma^2}\mathsf{k}_1(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})=\frac{2}{\sigma^2}\mathbf{x}^\top \mathbf{z} \qquad \textrm{well defined by rule (2)}\\ \mathsf{k}_3(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})&=e^{\mathsf{k}_2(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})}=e^{\frac{2\mathbf{x}^\top \mathbf{z}}{\sigma^2}} \qquad \textrm{well defined by rule (4)}\\ \mathsf{k}_{4}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})&=e^{-\frac{\mathbf{x}^\top\mathbf{x}}{\sigma^2}} \mathsf{k}_3(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z}) e^{-\frac{\mathbf{z}^\top\mathbf{z}}{\sigma^2}} =e^{-\frac{\mathbf{x}^\top\mathbf{x}}{\sigma^2}} e^{\frac{2\mathbf{x}^\top \mathbf{z}}{\sigma^2}} e^{-\frac{\mathbf{z}^\top\mathbf{z}}{\sigma^2}} \qquad \textrm{well defined by rule (3) with f(\mathbf{x})= e^{-\frac{\mathbf{x}^\top\mathbf{x}}{\sigma^2}}}\\ &=e^{\frac{-\mathbf{x}^\top\mathbf{x}+2\mathbf{x}^\top\mathbf{z}-\mathbf{z}^\top\mathbf{z}}{\sigma^2}}=e^{\frac{-(\mathbf{x}-\mathbf{z})^2}{\sigma^2}}=\mathsf{k}_{RBF}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z}) \end{aligned}

You can even define kernels of sets, or strings or molecules. The following kernel is defined on two sets, $\mathsf{k}(S_1,S_2)=e^{|S_1 \cap S_2|}.$ It can be shown that this is a well-defined kernel. We can list out all possible samples $\Omega$ and arrange them into a sorted list. We define a vector $\mathbf{x} \in \{0,1\}^{|\Omega|}$, where each of its element indicates whether a corresponding sample is included in the set. It is easy to prove that $\mathsf{k}(S_1,S_2)=e^{x_1^\top x_2},$ which is a well-defined kernel by rules (1) and (4).

### Kernel Machines

An algorithm can be kernelized in 2 steps:
1. Rewrite the algorithm and the classifier entirely in terms of inner-product, $\mathbf{x}_1^\top \mathbf{x}_2$.
2. Define a kernel function and substitute $\mathsf{k}(\mathbf{x}_i,\mathbf{x}_j)$ for $\mathbf{x}_i^\top \mathbf{x}_j$.
Quiz 1: How can you kernelize nearest neighbors (with Euclidean distances)? $D=\{(\mathbf{x}_1,y_1),\ldots,(\mathbf{x}_n,y_n)\}.$
Observations: Nearest neighbor under squared Euclidean distance is the same as nearest neighbor under Euclidean distance. Therefore, out of the original version,
$h(\mathbf{x})= y_j \quad \text{where} \quad j=argmin_{(\mathbf{x_j},y_j) \in D}(x-x_j)^2$ we can derive the kernel version, $h(\mathbf{x})= y_j \quad \text{where} \quad j=argmin_{(\mathbf{x_j},y_j) \in D} (\mathsf{k}({\mathbf{x}}, {\mathbf{x}})-2\mathsf{k}({\mathbf{x}}, {\mathbf{x}_j})+\mathsf{k}({\mathbf{x}_j}, {\mathbf{x}_j}))$ Actually, the kernel nearest neighbor is rarely used in practice, because it brings little improvement since the original $k$-NN is already highly non-linear.

#### Kernel Regression

Kernel regression is kernelized Ordinary Least Squares Regression (OLS). Vanilla OLS minimizes the following squared loss regression loss function, $$\min_\mathbf{w} \sum_{i=1}^{n} (\mathbf{w}^\top \mathbf{x}_i -y_i)^2,$$ to find the hyper-plane $\mathbf{w}$. The prediction at a test-point is simply $h(\mathbf{x})=\mathbf{w}^\top \mathbf{x}$.
If we let $\mathbf{X}=[\mathbf{x}_1,\ldots,\mathbf{x}_n]$ and $\mathbf{y}=[y_1,\ldots,y_n]^\top$, the solution of OLS can be written in closed form: $$\mathbf{w}=(\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}^\top)^{-1} \mathbf{X} \mathbf{y}\qquad(5)%\label{eq:kernel:OLS}$$
##### kernelization
We begin by expressing the solution $\mathbf{w}$ as a linear combination of the training inputs $$\mathbf{w}=\sum_{i=1}^{n} \alpha_i\mathbf{x}_i=\mathbf{X}\vec{\alpha}.$$ You can verify that such a vector $\vec \alpha$ must always exist by observing the gradient updates that occur if (5) is minimized with gradient descent and the initial vector is set to $\mathbf{w}_0=\vec 0$ (because the squared loss is convex the solution is independent of its initialization.) We now kernelize the algorithm by substituting $k(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{z})$ for any inner-product $\mathbf{x}^\top \mathbf{z}$. It follows that the prediction at a test point becomes $$h(\mathbf{x})=\mathbf{w}^\top \mathbf{x} = \sum_{i=1}^{n} \alpha_i \mathbf{x}_i^\top\mathbf{x} =\sum_{i=1}^{n} \alpha_i k(\mathbf{x}_i,\mathbf{x})= K_{X:x}\vec{\alpha}.$$ It remains to show that we can also solve for the values of $\alpha$ in closed form. As it turns out, this is straight-forward.
Kernelized ordinary least squares has the solution $\vec{\alpha}={\mathbf{K}}^{-1} \mathbf{y}$.
\begin{aligned} \mathbf{X}\vec{\alpha}&=\mathbf{w}= (\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}^\top)^{-1} \mathbf{X} \mathbf{y} \ \ \ \textrm{ | multiply from left by (\mathbf{X}^\top\mathbf{X})^{-1}\mathbf{X}^\top} \\ (\mathbf{X}^\top\mathbf{X})^{-1}\mathbf{X}^\top\mathbf{X}\vec{\alpha} &= (\mathbf{X}^\top\mathbf{X})^{-1}\underbrace{\mathbf{X}^\top(\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}^\top)^{-1} \mathbf{X}}_{=\mathbf{I}} \mathbf{y}\\ \vec{\alpha}&= (\mathbf{X} ^\top \mathbf{X})^{-1} \mathbf{y} | \textrm{ substitute \mathbf{K}=\mathbf{X}^\top \mathbf{X}}\\ \vec{\alpha}&= \mathbf{K}^{-1} \mathbf{y} \\ \end{aligned}

Kernel regression can be extended to the kernelized version of ridge regression. The solution then becomes $$\vec{\alpha}=(\mathbf{K}+\sigma^2\mathbf{I})^{-1}\mathbf{y}.$$ In practice a small value of $\sigma^2>0$ increases stability, especially if $\mathbf{K}$ is not invertible. If $\sigma=0$ kernel ridge regression, becomes kernelized ordinary least squares. Typically kernel ridge regression is also referred to as kernel regression.
##### Testing

Remember that we defined $\mathbf{w}=\mathbf{X}\vec{\alpha}.$ The prediction of a test point $\mathbf{z}$ then becomes $$h(\mathbf{z})=\mathbf{z}^\top \mathbf{w} =\mathbf{z}^\top\underbrace{\mathbf{X}\vec{\alpha}}_{\mathbf{w}} =\mathbf{z}\mathbf{X}\underbrace{(\mathbf{K}+\sigma^2\mathbf{I})^{-1}\mathbf{y}}_{\vec{\alpha}} =\underbrace{\mathbf{K}_*}_{\mathbf{z}\mathbf{x}}(\mathbf{K}+\sigma^2\mathbf{I})^{-1}\mathbf{y},$$ where $\mathbf{K}_*$ is the kernel of the test point with the training points, i.e. $[\mathbf{K}_*]_{i}=\phi(\mathbf{z})^\top\phi(\mathbf{x}_i)$, the inner-product between the test point $\mathbf{z}$ with the training point $\mathbf{x}_i$ after the mapping into feature space through $\phi$.

### Kernel SVM

The original, primal SVM is a quadratic programming problem: \begin{aligned} &\min_{\mathbf{w},b}\mathbf{w}^\top\mathbf{w}+C \sum_{i=1}^{n} \xi_i \\ \text{s.t. }\forall i, &\quad y_i(\mathbf{w}^\top\mathbf{x}_i +b) \geq 1 - \xi_i\\ &\quad \xi_i \geq 0 \end{aligned} has the dual form \begin{aligned} &\min_{\alpha_1,\cdots,\alpha_n}\frac{1}{2} \sum_{i,j}\alpha_i \alpha_j y_i y_j K_{ij} - \sum_{i=1}^{n}\alpha_i \\ \text{s.t.} &\quad 0 \leq \alpha_i \leq C\\ &\quad \sum_{i=1}^{n} \alpha_i y_i = 0 \end{aligned}
where $\mathbf{w}=\sum_{i=1}^n \alpha_i y_i\phi(\mathbf{x}_i)$ (although this is never computed) and $h(\mathbf{x})=\textrm{sign}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n \alpha_i y_i k(\mathbf{x}_i,\mathbf{x})+b\right).$ Almost all $\alpha_i = 0$ (i.e. $\vec \alpha$ is sparse). We refer to those inputs with $\alpha_i>0$ as support vectors. For test-time you only have to store the vectors $\mathbf{x}_i$ and values $\alpha_i$ that correspond to support vectors. It is easy to show $\alpha_i> 0 \leftrightarrow y_i(\mathbf{w}^\top \phi(x_i)+b)=1$. This allows us to solve for $b$ from the support vectors (it is best to average the $b$ from all support vectors, as there may be numerical precision problems).

Quiz: What is the dual form of the hard-margin SVM?

#### Kernel SVM - the smart nearest neighbor

Do you remember the k-nearest neighbor algorithm? For binary classification problems ($y_i\in\{+1,-1\}$), we can write the decision function for a test point $\mathbf{z}$ as $$h(\mathbf{z})=\textrm{sign}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n y_i \delta^{nn}(\mathbf{x}_i,\mathbf{z})\right),$$ where $\delta^{nn}(\mathbf{z},\mathbf{x}_i)\in\{0,1\}$ with $\delta^{nn}(\mathbf{z},\mathbf{x}_i)=1$ only if $\mathbf{x}_i$ is one of the $k$ nearest neighbors of test point $\mathbf{z}$. The SVM decision function $$h(\mathbf{z})=\textrm{sign}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n y_i\alpha_i k(\mathbf{x}_i,\mathbf{z})+b\right)$$ is very similar, but instead of limiting the decision to the $k$ nearest neighbors, it considers all training points but the kernel function assigns more weight to those that are closer (large $k(\mathbf{z},\mathbf{x}_i))$. In some sense you can view the RBF kernel as a soft nearest neighbor assignment, as the exponential decay with distance with assign almost no weight to all but the neighboring points of $\mathbf{z}$. The Kernel SVM algorithm also learns a weight $\alpha_i>0$ for each training point and a bias $b$ and it essentially "removes" useless training points by setting many $\alpha_i=0$.