(** * Logic: Logic in Coq *) Set Warnings "-notation-overridden,-parsing". From LF Require Export Tactics. (** We have seen... - _propositions_: factual claims - equality propositions ([e1 = e2]) - implications ([P -> Q]) - quantified propositions ([forall x, P]) - _proofs_: ways of presenting evidence for the truth of a proposition In this chapter we will introduce several more flavors of both propositions and proofs. *) (** Like everything in Coq, propositions are _typed_: *) Check 3 = 3. (* ===> Prop *) Check forall n m : nat, n + m = m + n. (* ===> Prop *) (** Note that _all_ syntactically well-formed propositions have type [Prop] in Coq, regardless of whether they are true. *) (** Simply _being_ a proposition is one thing; being _provable_ is something else! *) Check 2 = 2. (* ===> Prop *) Check forall n : nat, n = 2. (* ===> Prop *) Check 3 = 4. (* ===> Prop *) (** So far, we've seen one primary place that propositions can appear: in [Theorem] (and [Lemma] and [Example]) declarations. *) Theorem plus_2_2_is_4 : 2 + 2 = 4. Proof. reflexivity. Qed. (** Propositions are first-class entities in Coq. For example, we can name them: *) Definition plus_fact : Prop := 2 + 2 = 4. Check plus_fact. (* ===> plus_fact : Prop *) Theorem plus_fact_is_true : plus_fact. Proof. reflexivity. Qed. (** We can also write _parameterized_ propositions -- that is, functions that take arguments of some type and return a proposition. *) Definition is_three (n : nat) : Prop := n = 3. Check is_three. (* ===> nat -> Prop *) (** In Coq, functions that return propositions are said to define _properties_ of their arguments. For instance, here's a (polymorphic) property defining the familiar notion of an _injective function_. *) Definition injective {A B} (f : A -> B) := forall x y : A, f x = f y -> x = y. Lemma succ_inj : injective S. Proof. intros n m H. injection H as H1. apply H1. Qed. (** The equality operator [=] is also a function that returns a [Prop]. The expression [n = m] is syntactic sugar for [eq n m] (defined using Coq's [Notation] mechanism). Because [eq] can be used with elements of any type, it is also polymorphic: *) Check @eq. (* ===> forall A : Type, A -> A -> Prop *) (* QUIZ What is the type of the following expression? pred (S O) = O (1) [Prop] (2) [nat->Prop] (3) [forall n:nat, Prop] (4) [nat->nat] (5) Not typeable *) (* /QUIZ *) (* QUIZ What is the type of the following expression? forall n:nat, pred (S n) = n (1) [Prop] (2) [nat->Prop] (3) [forall n:nat, Prop] (4) [nat->nat] (5) Not typeable *) (* /QUIZ *) (* QUIZ What is the type of the following expression? forall n:nat, S (pred n) = n (1) [Prop] (2) [nat->Prop] (3) [nat->nat] (4) Not typeable *) (* /QUIZ *) (* QUIZ What is the type of the following expression? forall n:nat, S (pred n) (1) [Prop] (2) [nat->Prop] (3) [nat->nat] (4) Not typeable *) (* /QUIZ *) (* QUIZ What is the type of the following expression? fun n:nat => S (pred n) (1) [Prop] (2) [nat->Prop] (3) [nat->nat] (4) Not typeable *) (* /QUIZ *) (* QUIZ What is the type of the following expression? fun n:nat => S (pred n) = n (1) [Prop] (2) [nat->Prop] (3) [nat->nat] (4) Not typeable *) (* /QUIZ *) (* QUIZ Which of the following is _not_ a proposition? (1) [3 + 2 = 4] (2) [3 + 2 = 5] (3) [3 + 2 =? 5] (4) [(3+2) =? 4 = false] (5) [forall n, (3+2) =? n = true -> n = 5] (6) All of these are propositions *) (* /QUIZ *) (* ################################################################# *) (** * Logical Connectives *) (* ================================================================= *) (** ** Conjunction *) (** The _conjunction_, or _logical and_, of propositions [A] and [B] is written [A /\ B], representing the claim that both [A] and [B] are true. *) Example and_example : 3 + 4 = 7 /\ 2 * 2 = 4. (** To prove a conjunction, use the [split] tactic. It will generate two subgoals, one for each part of the statement: *) Proof. split. - (* 3 + 4 = 7 *) reflexivity. - (* 2 + 2 = 4 *) reflexivity. Qed. (** For any propositions [A] and [B], if we assume that [A] is true and we assume that [B] is true, we can conclude that [A /\ B] is also true. *) Lemma and_intro : forall A B : Prop, A -> B -> A /\ B. Proof. intros A B HA HB. split. - apply HA. - apply HB. Qed. (** Since applying a theorem with hypotheses to some goal has the effect of generating as many subgoals as there are hypotheses for that theorem, we can apply [and_intro] to achieve the same effect as [split]. *) Example and_example' : 3 + 4 = 7 /\ 2 * 2 = 4. Proof. apply and_intro. - (* 3 + 4 = 7 *) reflexivity. - (* 2 + 2 = 4 *) reflexivity. Qed. Example and_exercise : forall n m : nat, n + m = 0 -> n = 0 /\ m = 0. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** So much for proving conjunctive statements. To go in the other direction -- i.e., to _use_ a conjunctive hypothesis to help prove something else -- we employ the [destruct] tactic. If the proof context contains a hypothesis [H] of the form [A /\ B], writing [destruct H as [HA HB]] will remove [H] from the context and add two new hypotheses: [HA], stating that [A] is true, and [HB], stating that [B] is true. *) Lemma and_example2 : forall n m : nat, n = 0 /\ m = 0 -> n + m = 0. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** As usual, we can also destruct [H] right when we introduce it, instead of introducing and then destructing it: *) Lemma and_example2' : forall n m : nat, n = 0 /\ m = 0 -> n + m = 0. Proof. intros n m [Hn Hm]. rewrite Hn. rewrite Hm. reflexivity. Qed. (** You may wonder why we bothered packing the two hypotheses [n = 0] and [m = 0] into a single conjunction, since we could have also stated the theorem with two separate premises: *) Lemma and_example2'' : forall n m : nat, n = 0 -> m = 0 -> n + m = 0. Proof. intros n m Hn Hm. rewrite Hn. rewrite Hm. reflexivity. Qed. (** For the present example, both ways work. But in other situations we may wind up with a conjunctive hypothesis in the middle of a proof... *) Lemma and_example3 : forall n m : nat, n + m = 0 -> n * m = 0. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** By the way, the infix notation [/\] is actually just syntactic sugar for [and A B]. That is, [and] is a Coq operator that takes two propositions as arguments and yields a proposition. *) Check and. (* ===> and : Prop -> Prop -> Prop *) (* ================================================================= *) (** ** Disjunction *) (** Another important connective is the _disjunction_, or _logical or_, of two propositions: [A \/ B] is true when either [A] or [B] is. (This infix notation stands for [or A B], where [or : Prop -> Prop -> Prop].) *) (** To use a disjunctive hypothesis in a proof, we proceed by case analysis, which, as for [nat] or other data types, can be done explicitly with [destruct] or implicitly with an [intros] pattern: *) Lemma or_example : forall n m : nat, n = 0 \/ m = 0 -> n * m = 0. Proof. (* This pattern implicitly does case analysis on [n = 0 \/ m = 0] *) intros n m [Hn | Hm]. - (* Here, [n = 0] *) rewrite Hn. reflexivity. - (* Here, [m = 0] *) rewrite Hm. rewrite <- mult_n_O. reflexivity. Qed. (** We can see in this example that, when we perform case analysis on a disjunction [A \/ B], we must separately satisfy two proof obligations, each showing that the conclusion holds under a different assumption -- [A] in the first subgoal and [B] in the second. Note that the case analysis pattern [[Hn | Hm]] allows us to name the hypotheses that are generated in the subgoals. *) (** Conversely, to show that a disjunction holds, we need to show that one of its sides does. This is done via two tactics, [left] and [right]. As their names imply, the first one requires proving the left side of the disjunction, while the second requires proving its right side. Here is a trivial use... *) Lemma or_intro : forall A B : Prop, A -> A \/ B. Proof. intros A B HA. left. apply HA. Qed. (** ... and here is a slightly more interesting example requiring both [left] and [right]: *) Lemma zero_or_succ : forall n : nat, n = 0 \/ n = S (pred n). Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** **** Exercise: 1 star, standard (mult_eq_0) *) Lemma mult_eq_0 : forall n m, n * m = 0 -> n = 0 \/ m = 0. Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) (** **** Exercise: 1 star, standard (or_commut) *) Theorem or_commut : forall P Q : Prop, P \/ Q -> Q \/ P. Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) (* ================================================================= *) (** ** Falsehood and Negation So far, we have mostly been concerned with proving that certain things are _true_ -- addition is commutative, appending lists is associative, etc. Of course, we may also be interested in negative results, showing that some given proposition is _not_ true. In Coq, such statements are expressed with the negation operator [~]. *) (** To see how negation works, recall the _principle of explosion_ from the [Tactics] chapter; it asserts that, if we assume a contradiction, then any other proposition can be derived. Following this intuition, we could define [~ P] ("not [P]") as [forall Q, P -> Q]. Coq actually makes a slightly different (but equivalent) choice, defining [~ P] as [P -> False], where [False] is a specific contradictory proposition defined in the standard library. *) Module MyNot. Definition not (P:Prop) := P -> False. Notation "~ x" := (not x) : type_scope. Check not. (* ===> Prop -> Prop *) End MyNot. (** Since [False] is a contradictory proposition, the principle of explosion also applies to it. If we get [False] into the proof context, we can use [destruct] on it to complete any goal: *) Theorem ex_falso_quodlibet : forall (P:Prop), False -> P. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** Inequality is a frequent enough example of negated statement that there is a special notation for it, [x <> y]: Notation "x <> y" := (~(x = y)). *) (** We can use [not] to state that [0] and [1] are different elements of [nat]: *) Theorem zero_not_one : 0 <> 1. Proof. unfold not. intros contra. discriminate contra. Qed. (** It takes a little practice to get used to working with negation in Coq. Even though you can see perfectly well why a statement involving negation is true, it can be a little tricky at first to get things into the right configuration so that Coq can understand it! Here are proofs of a few familiar facts to get you warmed up. *) Theorem not_False : ~ False. Proof. unfold not. intros H. destruct H. Qed. Theorem contradiction_implies_anything : forall P Q : Prop, (P /\ ~P) -> Q. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. Theorem double_neg : forall P : Prop, P -> ~~P. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** Similarly, since inequality involves a negation, it requires a little practice to be able to work with it fluently. Here is one useful trick. If you are trying to prove a goal that is nonsensical (e.g., the goal state is [false = true]), apply [ex_falso_quodlibet] to change the goal to [False]. This makes it easier to use assumptions of the form [~P] that may be available in the context -- in particular, assumptions of the form [x<>y]. *) Theorem not_true_is_false : forall b : bool, b <> true -> b = false. Proof. intros [] H. - (* b = true *) unfold not in H. apply ex_falso_quodlibet. apply H. reflexivity. - (* b = false *) reflexivity. Qed. (** Since reasoning with [ex_falso_quodlibet] is quite common, Coq provides a built-in tactic, [exfalso], for applying it. *) Theorem not_true_is_false' : forall b : bool, b <> true -> b = false. Proof. intros [] H. - (* b = true *) unfold not in H. exfalso. (* <=== *) apply H. reflexivity. - (* b = false *) reflexivity. Qed. (* QUIZ To prove the following proposition, which tactics will we need besides [intros] and [apply]? forall X, forall a b : X, (a=b) /\ (a<>b) -> False. (1) [destruct], [unfold], [left] and [right] (2) [destruct] and [unfold] (3) only [destruct] (4) [left] and/or [right] (5) only [unfold] (6) none of the above *) (* /QUIZ *) Lemma quiz1: forall X, forall a b : X, (a=b) /\ (a<>b) -> False. Proof. intros X a b [H0 H1]. apply H1 in H0. apply H0. Qed. (* QUIZ To prove the following proposition, which tactics will we need besides [intros] and [apply]? forall P Q : Prop, P \/ Q -> ~~(P \/ Q). (1) [destruct], [unfold], [left] and [right] (2) [destruct] and [unfold] (3) only [destruct] (4) [left] and/or [right] (5) only [unfold] (6) none of the above *) (* /QUIZ *) Lemma quiz2 : forall P Q : Prop, P \/ Q -> ~~(P \/ Q). Proof. intros P Q H H1. apply H1 in H. apply H. Qed. (* QUIZ To prove the following proposition, which tactics will we need besides [intros] and [apply]? forall A B: Prop, A -> (A \/ ~~B). (1) [destruct], [unfold], [left] and [right] (2) [destruct] and [unfold] (3) only [destruct] (4) [left] and/or [right] (5) only [unfold] (6) none of the above *) (* /QUIZ *) Lemma quiz3 : forall A B: Prop, A -> (A \/ ~~B). Proof. intros P Q H. left. apply H. Qed. (* QUIZ To prove the following proposition, which tactics will we need besides [intros] and [apply]? forall P Q: Prop, P \/ Q -> ~~P \/ ~~Q. (1) [destruct], [unfold], [left] and [right] (2) [destruct] and [unfold] (3) only [destruct] (4) [left] and/or [right] (5) only [unfold] (6) none of the above *) (* /QUIZ *) Lemma quiz4 : forall P Q: Prop, P \/ Q -> ~~P \/ ~~Q. Proof. intros P Q [H0 | H0]. - (* left *) left. intros H1. apply H1 in H0. apply H0. - (* right *) right. intros H1. apply H1 in H0. apply H0. Qed. (* QUIZ To prove the following proposition, which tactics will we need besides [intros] and [apply]? forall A : Prop, 1=0 -> (A \/ ~A). (1) [discriminate], [unfold], [left] and [right] (2) [discriminate] and [unfold] (3) only [discriminate] (4) [left] and/or [right] (5) only [unfold] (6) none of the above *) (* /QUIZ *) Lemma quiz5 : forall A : Prop, 1=0 -> (A \/ ~A). Proof. intros P H. discriminate H. Qed. (* ================================================================= *) (** ** Truth *) (** Besides [False], Coq's standard library also defines [True], a proposition that is trivially true. To prove it, we use the predefined constant [I : True]: *) Lemma True_is_true : True. Proof. apply I. Qed. (** Unlike [False], which is used extensively, [True] is used quite rarely, since it is trivial (and therefore uninteresting) to prove as a goal, and it carries no useful information as a hypothesis. *) (* ================================================================= *) (** ** Logical Equivalence *) (** The handy "if and only if" connective, which asserts that two propositions have the same truth value, is just the conjunction of two implications. *) Module MyIff. Definition iff (P Q : Prop) := (P -> Q) /\ (Q -> P). Notation "P <-> Q" := (iff P Q) (at level 95, no associativity) : type_scope. End MyIff. Theorem iff_sym : forall P Q : Prop, (P <-> Q) -> (Q <-> P). Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. Lemma not_true_iff_false : forall b, b <> true <-> b = false. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** **** Exercise: 1 star, standard, optional (iff_properties) Using the above proof that [<->] is symmetric ([iff_sym]) as a guide, prove that it is also reflexive and transitive. *) Theorem iff_refl : forall P : Prop, P <-> P. Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. Theorem iff_trans : forall P Q R : Prop, (P <-> Q) -> (Q <-> R) -> (P <-> R). Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) (* ================================================================= *) (** ** Setoids and Logical Equivalence *) (** Some of Coq's tactics treat [iff] statements specially, avoiding the need for some low-level proof-state manipulation. In particular, [rewrite] and [reflexivity] can be used with [iff] statements, not just equalities. To enable this behavior, we need to import a Coq library that supports it: *) From Coq Require Import Setoids.Setoid. (** A "setoid" is a set equipped with an equivalence relation, such as [=] or [<->]. *) (** Example: using [rewrite] with [<->]. *) Lemma mult_0 : forall n m, n * m = 0 <-> n = 0 \/ m = 0. Proof. split. - apply mult_eq_0. - apply or_example. Qed. Lemma or_assoc : forall P Q R : Prop, P \/ (Q \/ R) <-> (P \/ Q) \/ R. Proof. intros P Q R. split. - intros [H | [H | H]]. + left. left. apply H. + left. right. apply H. + right. apply H. - intros [[H | H] | H]. + left. apply H. + right. left. apply H. + right. right. apply H. Qed. Lemma mult_0_3 : forall n m p, n * m * p = 0 <-> n = 0 \/ m = 0 \/ p = 0. Proof. intros n m p. rewrite mult_0. rewrite mult_0. rewrite or_assoc. reflexivity. Qed. (** Example: using [apply] with [<->]. *) Lemma apply_iff_example : forall n m : nat, n * m = 0 -> n = 0 \/ m = 0. Proof. intros n m H. apply mult_0. apply H. Qed. (* ================================================================= *) (** ** Existential Quantification *) (** To prove a statement of the form [exists x, P], we must show that [P] holds for some specific choice of value for [x], known as the _witness_ of the existential. This is done in two steps: First, we explicitly tell Coq which witness [t] we have in mind by invoking the tactic [exists t]. Then we prove that [P] holds after all occurrences of [x] are replaced by [t]. *) Lemma four_is_even : exists n : nat, 4 = n + n. Proof. exists 2. reflexivity. Qed. (** Conversely, if we have an existential hypothesis [exists x, P] in the context, we can destruct it to obtain a witness [x] and a hypothesis stating that [P] holds of [x]. *) Theorem exists_example_2 : forall n, (exists m, n = 4 + m) -> (exists o, n = 2 + o). Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (* ################################################################# *) (** * Programming with Propositions *) (** What does it mean to say that "an element [x] occurs in a list [l]"? - If [l] is the empty list, then [x] cannot occur on it, so the property "[x] appears in [l]" is simply false. - Otherwise, [l] has the form [x' :: l']. In this case, [x] occurs in [l] if either it is equal to [x'] or it occurs in [l']. *) (** We can translate this directly into a straightforward recursive function taking an element and a list and returning a proposition: *) Fixpoint In {A : Type} (x : A) (l : list A) : Prop := match l with | [] => False | x' :: l' => x' = x \/ In x l' end. (** When [In] is applied to a concrete list, it expands into a concrete sequence of nested disjunctions. *) Example In_example_1 : In 4 [1; 2; 3; 4; 5]. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. Example In_example_2 : forall n, In n [2; 4] -> exists n', n = 2 * n'. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** We can also prove more generic, higher-level lemmas about [In]. Note, in the next, how [In] starts out applied to a variable and only gets expanded when we do case analysis on this variable: *) Lemma In_map : forall (A B : Type) (f : A -> B) (l : list A) (x : A), In x l -> In (f x) (map f l). Proof. intros A B f l x. induction l as [|x' l' IHl']. - (* l = nil, contradiction *) simpl. intros []. - (* l = x' :: l' *) simpl. intros [H | H]. + rewrite H. left. reflexivity. + right. apply IHl'. apply H. Qed. (* ################################################################# *) (** * Applying Theorems to Arguments *) (** Coq also treats _proofs_ as first-class objects! *) (** We have seen that we can use the [Check] command to ask Coq to print the type of an expression. We can also use [Check] to ask what theorem a particular identifier refers to. *) Check plus_comm. (* ===> forall n m : nat, n + m = m + n *) (** Coq prints the _statement_ of the [plus_comm] theorem in the same way that it prints the _type_ of any term that we ask it to [Check]. Why? *) (** The reason is that the identifier [plus_comm] actually refers to a _proof object_ -- a data structure that represents a logical derivation establishing of the truth of the statement [forall n m : nat, n + m = m + n]. The type of this object _is_ the statement of the theorem that it is a proof of. *) (** The type of a computational object tells us what we can do with that object. - e.g., if we have a term of type [nat -> nat -> nat], we can give it two [nat]s as arguments and get a [nat] back. Similarly, the statement of a theorem tells us what we can use that theorem for. - if we have an object of type [n = m -> n + n = m + m] and we provide it an "argument" of type [n = m], we can derive [n + n = m + m]. *) (** Coq actually allows us to _apply_ a theorem as if it were a function. This is often very handy in proof scripts -- e.g., suppose we want too prove the following: *) Lemma plus_comm3 : forall x y z, x + (y + z) = (z + y) + x. (** It appears at first sight that we ought to be able to prove this by rewriting with [plus_comm] twice to make the two sides match. The problem, however, is that the second [rewrite] will undo the effect of the first. *) Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** Let us show another example of using a theorem or lemma like a function. The following theorem says: any list [l] containing some element must be nonempty. *) Lemma in_not_nil : forall A (x : A) (l : list A), In x l -> l <> []. Proof. intros A x l H. unfold not. intro Hl. destruct l. - simpl in H. destruct H. - discriminate Hl. Qed. (** We can use this lemma to prove the special case where [x] is [42]. Naively, the tactic [apply in_not_nil] will fail because it cannot infer the value of [x]. There are several ways to work around that... *) Lemma in_not_nil_42 : forall l : list nat, In 42 l -> l <> []. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. Section FunctionTheoremQuiz. Lemma quiz : forall a b : nat, a = b -> b = 42 -> (forall (X : Type) (n m o : X), n = m -> m = o -> n = o) -> True. Proof. intros a b H1 H2 trans_eq. (** Goals window: a, b : nat H1 : a = b H2 : b = 42 trans_eq : forall (X : Type) (n m o : X), n = m -> m = o -> n = o --------------------------------------------------------- True *) (* QUIZ What is the type of this proof object? [trans_eq nat a b 42 H1 H2] (1) [a = b] (2) [42 = a] (3) [a = 42] (4) Does not typecheck *) Check trans_eq nat a b 42 H1 H2. (* /QUIZ *) (* QUIZ What is the type of this proof object? [trans_eq nat b 42 a H2] (1) [b = a] (2) [b = a -> 42 = a] (3) [42 = a -> b = a] (4) Does not typecheck *) Check trans_eq nat b 42 a H2. (* /QUIZ *) (* QUIZ What is the type of this proof object? [trans_eq _ 42 a b] (1) [a = b -> b = 42 -> a = 42] (2) [42 = a -> a = b -> 42 = b] (3) [a = 42 -> 42 = b -> a = b] (4) Does not typecheck *) Check trans_eq _ 42 a b. (* /QUIZ *) (* QUIZ What is the type of this proof object? [trans_eq _ _ _ _ H2 H1] (1) [b = a] (2) [42 = a] (3) [a = 42] (4) Does not typecheck *) Fail Check trans_eq _ _ _ _ H2 H1. (* /QUIZ *) Abort. End FunctionTheoremQuiz. (* ################################################################# *) (** * Coq vs. Set Theory *) (** Coq's logical core, the _Calculus of Inductive Constructions_, is a "metalanguage for mathematics" in the same sense as familiar foundations for paper-and-pencil mathematics, like Zermelo-Fraenkel Set Theory (ZFC). Mostly, the differences are not too important. However, there are cases where translating standard mathematical reasoning into Coq can be hard or even impossible unless we enrich the core logic with additional axioms... *) (* ================================================================= *) (** ** Functional Extensionality *) (** We can write an equality proposition stating that two _functions_ are equal to each other: *) Example function_equality_ex1 : (fun x => 3 + x) = (fun x => (pred 4) + x). Proof. reflexivity. Qed. (** In common mathematical practice, two functions [f] and [g] are considered equal if they produce the same outputs: (forall x, f x = g x) -> f = g This is known as the principle of _functional extensionality_. *) (** Functional extensionality is not part of Coq's built-in logic. This means that some "reasonable" propositions are not provable. *) Example function_equality_ex2 : (fun x => plus x 1) = (fun x => plus 1 x). Proof. (* Stuck *) Abort. (** However, we can add functional extensionality to Coq's core using the [Axiom] command. *) Axiom functional_extensionality : forall {X Y: Type} {f g : X -> Y}, (forall (x:X), f x = g x) -> f = g. (** Using [Axiom] has the same effect as stating a theorem and skipping its proof using [Admitted], but it alerts the reader that this isn't just something we're going to come back and fill in later! *) (** We can now invoke functional extensionality in proofs: *) Example function_equality_ex2 : (fun x => plus x 1) = (fun x => plus 1 x). Proof. apply functional_extensionality. intros x. apply plus_comm. Qed. (** Naturally, we must be careful when adding new axioms into Coq's logic, as they may render it _inconsistent_ -- that is, they may make it possible to prove every proposition, including [False], [2+2=5], etc.! Unfortunately, there is no simple way of telling whether an axiom is safe to add: hard work by highly-trained trained experts is generally required to establish the consistency of any particular combination of axioms. Fortunately, it is known that adding functional extensionality, in particular, _is_ consistent. *) (** To check whether a particular proof relies on any additional axioms, use the [Print Assumptions] command. *) Print Assumptions function_equality_ex2. (* ===> Axioms: functional_extensionality : forall (X Y : Type) (f g : X -> Y), (forall x : X, f x = g x) -> f = g *) (* QUIZ Is this provable by [reflexivity], i.e., without [functional_extensionality]? [(fun xs => 1 :: xs) = (fun xs => [1] ++ xs)] (1) Yes (2) No *) (* /QUIZ *) (* QUIZ Is this provable by [reflexivity], i.e., without [functional_extensionality]? [(fun x y => x + S y) = (fun x y => S (x + y))] (1) Yes (2) No *) (* /QUIZ *) (* ================================================================= *) (** ** Propositions and Booleans *) (** We've seen two different ways of expressing logical claims in Coq: with _booleans_ (of type [bool]), and with _propositions_ (of type [Prop]). For instance, to claim that a number [n] is even, we can say either... *) (** ... that [evenb n] evaluates to [true]... *) Example even_42_bool : evenb 42 = true. Proof. reflexivity. Qed. (** ... or that there exists some [k] such that [n = double k]. *) Example even_42_prop : exists k, 42 = double k. Proof. exists 21. reflexivity. Qed. (** Of course, it would be pretty strange if these two characterizations of evenness did not describe the same set of natural numbers! Fortunately, we can prove that they do... *) (** We first need two helper lemmas. *) Theorem evenb_double : forall k, evenb (double k) = true. Proof. intros k. induction k as [|k' IHk']. - reflexivity. - simpl. apply IHk'. Qed. Theorem evenb_double_conv : forall n, exists k, n = if evenb n then double k else S (double k). Proof. (* Hint: Use the [evenb_S] lemma from [Induction.v]. *) (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) Theorem even_bool_prop : forall n, evenb n = true <-> exists k, n = double k. Proof. intros n. split. - intros H. destruct (evenb_double_conv n) as [k Hk]. rewrite Hk. rewrite H. exists k. reflexivity. - intros [k Hk]. rewrite Hk. apply evenb_double. Qed. (** In view of this theorem, we say that the boolean computation [evenb n] is reflected in the truth of the proposition [exists k, n = double k]. *) (** Similarly, to state that two numbers [n] and [m] are equal, we can say either - (1) that [n =? m] returns [true], or - (2) that [n = m]. Again, these two notions are equivalent. *) Theorem eqb_eq : forall n1 n2 : nat, n1 =? n2 = true <-> n1 = n2. Proof. intros n1 n2. split. - apply eqb_true. - intros H. rewrite H. rewrite <- eqb_refl. reflexivity. Qed. (** However, even when the boolean and propositional formulations of a claim are equivalent from a purely logical perspective, they may not be equivalent _operationally_. *) (** For these examples, the propositional claims are more useful than their boolean counterparts, but this is not always the case. For instance, we cannot test whether a general proposition is true or not in a function definition; as a consequence, the following code fragment is rejected: *) Fail Definition is_even_prime n := if n = 2 then true else false. (** An important side benefit of stating facts using booleans is enabling some proof automation through computation with Coq terms, a technique known as _proof by reflection_. Consider the following statement: *) Example even_1000 : exists k, 1000 = double k. (** The most direct proof of this fact is to give the value of [k] explicitly. *) Proof. exists 500. reflexivity. Qed. (** On the other hand, the proof of the corresponding boolean statement is even simpler: *) Example even_1000' : evenb 1000 = true. Proof. reflexivity. Qed. (** What is interesting is that, since the two notions are equivalent, we can use the boolean formulation to prove the other one without mentioning the value 500 explicitly: *) Example even_1000'' : exists k, 1000 = double k. Proof. apply even_bool_prop. reflexivity. Qed. (** Another notable difference is that the negation of a "boolean fact" is straightforward to state and prove: simply flip the expected boolean result. *) Example not_even_1001 : evenb 1001 = false. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** In contrast, propositional negation may be more difficult to grasp. *) Example not_even_1001' : ~(exists k, 1001 = double k). Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** Equality provides a complementary example: knowing that [n =? m = true] is generally of little direct help in the middle of a proof involving [n] and [m]; however, if we convert the statement to the equivalent form [n = m], we can rewrite with it. *) Lemma plus_eqb_example : forall n m p : nat, n =? m = true -> n + p =? m + p = true. Proof. (* WORK IN CLASS *) Admitted. (** We won't cover reflection in much detail, but it serves as a good example showing the complementary strengths of booleans and general propositions. *) (* ================================================================= *) (** ** Classical vs. Constructive Logic *) (** The following reasoning principle is _not_ derivable in Coq (though, again, it can consistently be added): *) Definition excluded_middle := forall P : Prop, P \/ ~ P. (** Logics like Coq's, which do not assume the excluded middle, are referred to as _constructive logics_. More conventional logical systems such as ZFC, in which the excluded middle does hold for arbitrary propositions, are referred to as _classical_. *)