# Termination

Sometimes correctness of programs is further divided into:

• partial correctness: meaning that if a program terminates, then its output is correct; and

• total correctness: meaning that a program does terminate, and its output is correct.

Total correctness is therefore the conjunction of partial correctness and termination. Thus far, we have been proving partial correctness.

To prove that a program terminates is difficult. Indeed, it is impossible in general for an algorithm to do so: a computer can't precisely decide whether a program will terminate. (Look up the "halting problem" for more details.) But, a smart human sometimes can do so.

There is a simple heuristic that can be used to show that a recursive function terminates:

• All recursive calls are on a "smaller" input, and
• all base cases are terminating.

For example, consider the factorial function:

let rec fact n =
if n = 0 then 1
else n * fact (n - 1)


The base case, 1, obviously terminates. The recursive call is on n - 1, which is a smaller input than the original n. So fact always terminates (as long as its input is a natural number).

The same reasoning applies to all the other functions we've discussed above.

To make this more precise, we need a notion of what it means to be smaller. Suppose we have a binary relation < on inputs. Despite the notation, this relation need not be the less-than relation on integers---although that will work for fact. Also suppose that it is never possible to create an infinite sequence x0 > x1 > x2 > x3 ... of elements using this relation. (Where of course a > b iff b < a.) That is, there are no infinite descending chains of elements: once you pick a starting element x0, there can be only a finite number of "descents" according to the < relation before you bottom out and hit a base case. This property of < makes it a well-founded relation.

So, a recursive function terminates if all its recursive calls are on elements that are smaller according to <. Why? Because there can be only a finite number of calls before a base case is reached, and base cases must terminate.

The usual < relation is well-founded on the natural numbers, because eventually any chain must reach the base case of 0. But it is not well-founded on the integers, which can get just keep getting smaller: -1 > -2 > -3 > ....

Here's an interesting function for which the usual < relation doesn't suffice to prove termination:

let rec ack = function
| (0, n) -> n + 1
| (m, 0) -> ack (m - 1, 1)
| (m, n) -> ack (m - 1, ack (m, n - 1))


This is known as Ackermann's function. It grows faster than any exponential function. Try running ack (1, 1), ack (2, 1), ack (3, 1), then ack (4, 1) to get a sense of that. It also is a famous example of a function that can be implemented with while loops but not with for loops. Nonetheless, it does terminate.

To show that, the base case is easy: when the input is (0, _), the function terminates. But in other cases, it makes a recursive call, and we need to define an appropriate < relation. It turns out lexicograpic ordering on pairs works. Define (a, b) < (c, d) if:

• a < c, or
• a = c and b < d.

The < order in those two cases is the usual < on natural numbers.

In the first recursive call, (m - 1, 1) < (m, 0) by the first case of the definition of <, because m - 1 < m. In the nested recursive call ack (m - 1, ack (m, n - 1)), both cases are needed:

• (m, n - 1) < (m, n) because m = m and n - 1 < n
• (m - 1, _) < (m, n) because m - 1 < m.