# Building Lists

Syntax. There are three syntactic forms for building lists:

[]
e1::e2
[e1; e2; ...; en]


The empty list is written [] and is pronounced "nil", a name that comes from Lisp. Given a list lst and element elt, we can prepend elt to lst by writing elt::lst. The double-colon operator is pronounced "cons", a name that comes from an operator in Lisp that constructs objects in memory. "Cons" can also be used as a verb, as in "I will cons an element onto the list." The first element of a list is usually called its head and the rest of the elements (if any) are called its tail.

The square bracket syntax is convenient but unnecessary. Any list [e1; e2; ...; en] could instead be written with the more primitive nil and cons syntax: e1::e2::...::en::[]. When a pleasant syntax can be defined in terms of a more primitive syntax within the language, we call the pleasant syntax syntactic sugar: it makes the language "sweeter". Transforming the sweet syntax into the more primitive syntax is called desugaring.

Because the elements of the list can be arbitrary expressions, lists can be nested as deeply as we like, e.g., [ [[]]; [[1;2;3]]]

Dynamic semantics.

• [] is already a value.
• if e1 evaluates to v1, and if e2 evaluates to v2, then e1::e2 evaluates to v1::v2.

As a consequence of those rules and how to desugar the square-bracket notation for lists, we have the following derived rule:

• if ei evaluates to vi for all i in 1..n, then [e1; ...; en] evaluates to [v1; ...; vn].

It's starting to get tedious to write "evaluates to" in all our evaluation rules. So let's introduce a shorter notation for it. We'll write e ==> v to mean that e evaluates to v. Note that ==> is not a piece of OCaml syntax. Rather, it's a notation we use in our description of the language, kind of like metavariables. Using that notation, we can rewrite the latter two rules above:

• if e1 ==> v1, and if e2 ==> v2, then e1::e2 ==> v1::v2.
• if ei ==> vi for all i in 1..n, then [e1; ...; en] ==> [v1; ...; vn].

Static semantics.

All the elements of a list must have the same type. If that element type is t, then the type of the list is t list. You should read such types from right to left: t list is a list of t's, t list list is a list of list of t's, etc. The word list itself here is not a type: there is no way to build an OCaml value that has type simply list. Rather, list is a type constructor: given a type, it produces a new type. For example, given int, it produces the type int list. You could think of type constructors as being like functions that operate on types, instead of functions that operate on values.

The type-checking rules:

• [] : 'a list
• if e1 : t and e2 : t list then e1::e2 : t list.

In the rule for [], recall that 'a is a type variable: it stands for an unknown type. So the empty list is a list whose elements have an unknown type. If we cons an int onto it, say 2::[], then the compiler infers that for that particular list, 'a must be int. But if in another place we cons a bool onto it, say true::[], then the compiler infers that for that particular list, 'a must be bool.